Homeopathy (2010) 99,231-242 © 2010 The Faculty
of Homeopathy
ORIGINAL PAPER
Extreme homeopathic dilutions retain starting
materials: A nanoparticulate perspective
Prashant Satish Chikramane1, Akkihebbal K
Suresh1,2, Jayesh Ramesh Bellare1’2’* and Shantaram Govind Kane1, 1 Department
of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bombay, Adi
Shankaracharya Marg, Powai, Mumbai 400 076, Maharashtra, India
2Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering,
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bombay, Adi Shankaracharya Marg, Powai,
Mumbai 400 076, Maharashtra, India
Homeopathy is controversial because medicines
in high potencies such as 30c and 200c involve huge dilution factors (1060 and 10400
respectively) which are many orders of magnitude greater than Avogadro's number,
so that theoretically there should be no measurable remnants of the starting
materials. No hypothesis which predicts the retention of properties of starting
materials has been proposed nor has any physical entity been shown to exist in
these high potency medicines. Using market samples of metal- derived medicines
from reputable manufacturers, we have demonstrated for the first time by
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), electron diffraction and chemical
analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES),
the presence of physical entities in these extreme dilutions, in the form of
nanoparticles of the starting metals and their aggregates.
Homeopathy (2010) 99, 231 -242.
Keywords: Homeopathy; Nanoparticles;
Nanocrystalline materials; Transmission Electron Microscopy
Introduction
Homeopathy, a mode of therapy, was established
in the late 18th century by German physician, Samuel Hahne-mann. Hahnemann,
during his experiments, prepared medi-cines from a wide variety of natural
products. He discerned that the infinite dilutions of these substances carried
out in steps and accompanied by vigorous shaking ‘succussion’ (together known
as potentization) at each dilution step, elicited some kind of a potent
activity to these solutions.1,2 In spite of the various controversies and
frequent challenges by the scientific community regarding its efficacy, this
mode of treatment has stood the test of time, and is still being used in many
countries for treatment of various chronic conditions, with medicines being
prepared from a variety of herbal, animal, metal and other mineral sources.
Correspondence: Jayesh Ramesh Bellare and
Shantaram Go¬vind Kane, Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT), Bombay, Adi Shankaracharya Marg, Powai, Mumbai 400 076,
Maharashtra, India.
E-mail: jb@iitb.ac.in, sgkane@gmail.com
Received 6 November 2009; revised 22 April
2010; accepted 22 May 2010
However, a major lacuna has been the lack of
evidence of physical existence of the starting material. The main dif-ficulty
in arriving at a rational explanation stems from the fact that homeopathic
medicines are used in extreme dilu-tions, including dilution factors exceeding
Avogadro’s number by several orders of magnitude, in which one would not expect
any measurable remnant of the starting material to be present. In clinical
practice, homeopathic potencies of 30c and 200c having dilution factors of 1060
and 10400 respectively, far beyond Avogadro’s number of 6.023 x 1023 molecules
in one mole, are routinely used.
Many hypotheses have been postulated to justify
and elu-cidate their mechanisms of action. While some hypotheses such as the
theory of water memory,3-5 formation of clathrates,6 and epitaxy7 are
conjectural in nature, others such as those based on the quantum physical
aspects of the solutions8,9 have not been sufficiently tested, either due to
complexity in validating the hypothesis or due to non-reproducible results. The
‘silica hypothesis’10 is the only model that proposes the presence of physical
entities such as siloxanes or silicates resulting from leaching from the glass
containers. Following a dearth of credible and test¬able hypotheses to identify
any physical entity responsible for medicinal activity, most modern scientists
continue to believe that homeopathy at best provides a placebo effect.
Despite the extreme dilutions in 30c and 200c
potencies, our approach has been to test for the presence of the starting
materials in the form of nanoparticles.. Medicines selected were metal-based,
and were so chosen that the metals would not arise either as impurities or as
contaminants. The six metals and their respective homeopathic medicines were
gold (Aurum metallicum or Aurum met), copper (Cuprum metallicum or Cuprum met),
tin (Stannum metallicum or Stannum met), zinc (Zincum metallicum or Zincum
met), silver (Argentum metallicum or Argentum met) and platinum (Platinum
metallicum or Platinum met). Three potencies: 6c, 30c, and 200c were selected.
The dilution factor for 6c is 1012 which is less than Avogadro’s number,
whereas the dilution factors for 30c and 200c are well above. Market samples of
these medicines in 90%v/v ethanol were obtained from two reputable
manufacturers: SBL, India, and Dr. Willmar Schwabe India (WSI) Private Limited.
We examined the following physico-chemical
aspects:
a. The
presence of the physical entities in nanoparticle form and their size by
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) by bright-field and dark-field imaging.
b. Their
identification by matching the Selected Area Electron Diffraction (SAED)
patterns against literature standards for the corresponding known crystals.
c. Estimation
of the levels of starting metals by a 500-fold concentration of medicines,
followed by chemical analysis using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy (ICP-AES).
Materials and methods
Materials
The homeopathic medications used for the
purpose of re¬search were obtained commercially from authorized distrib¬utors
of a leading homeopathic drug manufacturer in India (SBL) and an Indian
subsidiary of a multi-national homeo¬pathic company viz. Dr. Willmar Schwabe
India Pvt. Ltd. Random batch number samples were purchased from the market and
no special effort was made to get samples from the company. Since we purchased
these medicines from the market, only in certain cases were we able to obtain
them from a single manufacturing batch. Also no special ef¬forts were made to
obtain the drugs from a batch. The High¬performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) grade ethanol used for the purpose of ICP-AES analyses was procured from
Commercial Alcohols Inc., Canada. The TEM grids obtained from Pacific Grid-Tech
(USA) were 200 mesh cop¬per grids coated with carbon—formvar.
Methods
Nanoparticle characterization by TEM/SAED: The
TEM analyses were performed on Tecnai G2 120 kV Cryo-TEM (FEI, Hillsboro, USA).
All samples were viewed at 120 kV. The TEM analyses were performed for the
medicines by placing a drop of the original solution (without
pre-concen-tration) on the carbon—formvar coated copper TEM grids in a clean
environment. The drop of the solution was then allowed to dry completely after
which another drop was added. The usual drying time for each drop was
ap-proximately 30—60 min in air at room temperature. This procedure was
repeated 5 times. After air-drying the sam¬ple for further 30—60 min, the grid
was kept under an IR lamp for approximately 20 min to ensure complete drying of
the sample and thereby preventing the possibility of solvent molecules from
adhering to the particles on the grid. The SAED patterns of the particles were
taken and the d-spacings were calculated using the camera length (calibrated
daily using a standard gold colloid). The dark-field images were also taken by
selecting three spots from two inner rings on the SAED pattern. The d-spacing
values from SAED patterns and the crystallite sizes from the dark-field images
were calculated using the Image-J software.
Elemental composition by ICP-AES: The
determination of the starting elements in ultra-trace concentrations was
performed on Ultima 2, (Jobin Yvon Horiba, Japan). The operating parameters for
the ICP-AES instrument were as follows: plasma gas flow rate (Argon gas): 12
l/min; auxil¬iary gas flow rate: 0.2 l/min; sample uptake: 2.5 ml/min;
integration time: 5.0 s, Spray Chamber: cyclonic chamber. The limit of
detection of the instrument was 10 ppb. For the purpose of ICP-AES analyses,
the samples were pre¬pared by pre-concentrating the solutions (6c, 30c, and
200c potencies) 500-fold in a vacuum rotary evaporator, Roteva Model #8706R (Equitron,
India) at 45°C and 100 rpm speed.
The homeopathic medicines that we purchased
were in ei-ther 100 ml or 500 ml capacity bottles. Most of the SBL homeopathic
medicine bottles were of 500 ml capacity with a few of 100 ml capacity, while
those obtained from Willmar Schwabe India (WSI) Pvt. Ltd. were all 100 ml
bot¬tles. In the case of medicines obtained as 500 ml bottles, so¬lutions from
4 bottles of the same medicine and potency were pooled together for
concentration, whereas for medi¬cines which were marketed as 100 ml bottles,
solutions from 20 bottles of each medicine at the same potency were pooled. The
concentration was carried out in a 50 ml clean round bottom flask on a rotary
vacuum evaporator. The flask was filled with the solution (approximately 30—35
ml at a time) and the solvent was evaporated. Upon complete evaporation of the
solvent, the flask was re¬filled with fresh homeopathic solution and the
process was repeated till the entire volume of 2000 ml was evaporated. Only one
bottle was opened at a time to maintain the integ¬rity of the purchased
medicines. To prevent contamination, under no circumstances was the solution in
the bottle kept exposed. The residues of Cuprum met, Stannum met, and Zincum
met were acidified to solubilize the particles of their respective starting
metals by addition of concentrated nitric acid. Similarly, aqua regia
(concentrated nitric acid and con¬centrated hydrochloric acid in the ratio 1:3)
was added to residues of Aurum met, Argentum met, and Platinum met. A 1:1 ratio
of water: acid was maintained for all the concen¬trated samples. The amount of
acid and water was adjusted so that the final volume was 4 ml, thus, amounting
to a con¬centration by a factor of 500. The samples were filtered through
Whatman 40 filter paper to remove the residual mat¬ter prior to analysis. The
SBL samples were analyzed in trip¬licate and samples from WSI were analyzed in
duplicate. As a negative control, 90%v/v ethanol samples were also pre¬pared
using HPLC grade ethanol and Milli-Q water. These ethanolic solutions were also
concentrated in the manner similar to that employed for the medicines.
The emission lines selected for measuring the
concentra-tion of the metals are as follows: Gold: 242.795 nm, Copper: 324.754
nm, Tin: 283.999 nm, Zinc: 213.856 nm, Silver: 328.068 nm, Platinum: 265.945
nm. The instrument re-sponse was calibrated using standards prior to analyses
of the samples.
Results and discussion
Determination of size and morphology by TEM
Zincum met, Aurum met, Stannum met and Cuprum
met 30c and 200c were analyzed by TEM. The results are given as
photomicrographs (Figure 1(a)—(p)), which clearly dem-onstrate the presence of
nanoparticles and their aggregates. Due to extreme dilution often only a single
nanoparticle or a large aggregate is seen. Hereafter, the term ‘particles’
col-lectively refers to the nanoparticles and their aggregates.
We noted a high polydispersity of the particles
in the so-lutions with respect to their shapes and sizes for various medicines
and potencies. A scrupulous examination of the entire manufacturing process of
these medicines sug¬gested that two key processes played a vital role in
impart¬ing the high polydispersity. They are:
1. The
dilution steps in the solid phase (till 6x potency) in-volved trituration of
the raw materials with lactose. Such a comminution process is expected to
generate particles of varied shapes and sizes. The physical characteristics of
these particles are dependent on the type of raw mate¬rial and the shearing force
applied.
2. During
liquid dilutions, the succussion process at each potentization step played a
vital role. The succussions given to the liquid mass are expected to produce
particles of varied shapes and sizes due to three factors including shearing
forces generated during the pounding of the liq-uid container against an
elastic stop, the properties of the raw materials involved, and variations
during pounding of the container, between individuals.
The permutations and combinations of the
above-men-tioned factors and the possible subtle differences in the
manufacturing processes employed by various manufac-turers can explain the
findings regarding polydispersity between different medicines and
manufacturers.
We also made another prominent observation
regarding the presence of surface asperities on the particles which were
clearly evident from the differences in contrast on sur¬faces of these
particles along with a substantial difference in their size between different
starting metals. Thus, larger aggregates were found in Zincum met (Figure
1(a)—(d)) and Stannum met (Figure 1(i)—(l)) as compared to those observed in
Aurum met (Figure 1(e)—(h)) and Cuprum met (Figure 1(m)—(p)) at the same
potencies.
The mechanism of cavitation or generation of
vapor bub-bles caused by ultra-sound irradiation (acoustic cavitation) in the
entire liquid mass during manufacturing may explain the observations noted
above. We suggest that the process of succussion is the cause of cavitation. As
set out in a later section, the extant theories of cavitation11—14 can, in
principle, provide an explanation of our findings.
The aggregation behavior of the particles seems
to be de-pendent on the physical property of the starting metal, spe-cifically
its melting point. We observed that the aggregates of zinc in Zincum met and
tin in Stannum met were rela¬tively larger as compared to the smaller
aggregates of gold and copper found in Aurum met and Cuprum met re¬spectively.
The bulk melting points of tin and zinc are ~ 505 K and ~ 692 K respectively as
compared to the higher melting points of gold and copper (~1337 K and ~ 1357 K
respectively). A decrease in melting points of metallic and semiconductor
particles with decreasing size has also been well characterized.15 A
combination of ex¬tremely high surface temperatures along with a decrease in
the melting point of these particles could facilitate the formation of
aggregates that we found.
It is probable that during the succussion
process, the col-lisions of the particles induce surface temperatures well
above the melting points of tin and zinc, thereby facilitat¬ing their
aggregation. However, the melting points of gold and copper being much higher,
the occurrence of melting and fusion of these particles would be relatively
less frequent than for tin and zinc.
Overall, our data for bright-field TEM do not
indicate a major difference in the size or nature of the particles in a
particular medicine as we increase potency from 30c to 200c. Therefore, the
individual crystallite sizes were deter¬mined by dark-field TEM (as shown for
Zincum met for both manufacturers in Figure 2(a)—(d)). We observed that the
aggregates of all the metals tested had maximum crystal¬lites (~40—50%) in the
size range of 5—10 nm, and that 70—95% of all the crystallites were below 15 nm
(Figure S1 — Supplementary information). Thus, in the case of dark-field TEM
also, there was no major potency- dependent difference in size distribution of
crystallites.
Confirmation of elemental composition of
particles by SAED
The nanoparticles and aggregates identified in
TEM were analyzed by SAED for confirmation of the elemental compo¬sition. We
took multiple SAED patterns of the same particle at varying intensities so as
to focus on the inner and outer rings for calculation of the d-spacings of the
respective ele¬ments. The SAED patterns of the nanoparticles and their
ag¬gregates found in the metal-based homeopathic medicines are represented in
Figure 3(a)—(p).
SAED analyses of all samples showed patterns
consis¬tent with the starting materials. In particular, Aurum met and Cuprum
met from both suppliers (SBL and WSI) in¬dexed to gold and copper respectively.
Table 1 shows the values of the d-spacings calculated from the diameters of the
ring patterns of particles observed in Aurum met samples. Similarly, in the
case of Stannum met from SBL, the observed pattern indexed to a-Sn whereas that
from WSI to b-Sn. In the case of Zincum met samples from both sup¬pliers, we
did not observe pure metallic zinc, but the SAED patterns indexed to zinc hydroxide
which is an expected compound derived from zinc (d-spacing data for zinc, tin
and copper have been given as Supplementary information — Tables S2—S5).
The confirmed presence of these crystalline
species of starting materials or those derived from them (as evident from the
SAED patterns) despite the ultra-high dilutions
such as 30c and 200c was astounding, proving
that the starting materials were retained even with extremely high dilutions.
The d-spacing values for the particular
elements con-formed well to the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards
(JCPDS) data in literature in the range of ±2%. However, for some d-spacings
corresponding to a few planes in the crystal, the values differed by
approximately ±4%. The differences in some of the d-spacing values for each
metal can be explained on the basis of induction of mi¬nor plastic deformations
in the crystals. The initial tritura-tion process involving high shearing
forces, together with the succussion process involving high-velocity collisions
of nanoparticles resulting in the generation of shock waves caused by the
imploding cavitations, may have induced minor plastic deformations in the metal
crystals.
In a few of the SAED patterns for the metals
analyzed, the particles also showed presence of diffused ring patterns similar
to that of an amorphous material. The probable reason for presence of amorphous
phases on the surface of the nanoparticles and aggregates is de¬scribed later
in this paper. On the whole, the SAED data indicated that the particles of the
starting materials were present in the homeopathic medicines even in po¬tencies
such as 30c and 200c. In order to quantify the ex¬act amounts of these starting
metals in ultra-high
potencies, we conducted the ICP-AES analyses of
these medicines.
Estimation of concentration of the starting
materials by ICP-AES
ICP-AES is an established technique for the
estimation of metals and other elements. Our equipment had a mini¬mum
detectable limit of 10ppb, thereby necessitating
|
Table
1 Electron diffraction pattern — comparison of
d-spacing for Aurum met 30c
and 200c potencies
All d-spacing values are in A units. d-spacing data
in ‘bold’ — from JCPDS#04-0784, remaining d-spacing data from Edington.16
|
concentration of the homeopathic solutions
using a tech-nique in which there is absolutely no possibility of adding
inadvertently the metal to be detected.
The analyses of the metal-based medicines,
performed after the concentration of the solutions gave startling re¬sults. The
starting metals were detected for all potencies (6c, 30c, and 200c) at
concentrations of the order of picogram/ml (pg/ml). The measured concentrations
are presented in Table 2. The data presented in the table are back-calculated
concentrations of the metals in the origi¬nal homeopathic medicines. The
analyses of the negative control of 90%v/v ethanol did not indicate the
presence of either the noble metals or tin, and for metals such as cop¬per and
zinc, indicated far lower concentrations than those in the medicines.
We analyzed several samples of Aurum met,
Argentum met, and Platinum met for the presence of their respective starting
metals. In the case of Aurum met (SBL), some of the samples tested, including
higher potencies such as 30c and 200c indi¬cated presence of approximately
60—100 pg/ml of gold; the levels being much higher than the sensitivity of the
instrument whereas in the ethanol—water negative controls there was no signal
for the presence of gold. However, a few Aurum met (SBL) samples did not show
presence of gold. Our results point towards a considerable batch-to-batch
variation in the concentrations of the starting material. This is certainly not
surprising, considering that the method of preparation in¬volved manual
processes along with an absence of any at¬tempt to estimate the concentrations
of the starting materials at the end of the manufacturing process of a
partic-ular batch. The Aurum met (WSI) samples did not show gold in detectable
quantities.
Analogous results were obtained for the
Argentum met (SBL) samples wherein silver was detected in one 30c and one 200c
sample (30.6 pg/ml and 116 pg/ml respec¬tively). The concentrations in the
other samples were below the detection limit. Likewise, we discerned
detect¬able concentration of platinum (~ 40—220 pg/ml) in the Platinum met
(SBL) samples for all potencies.
The concentrations of non-noble metals such as
copper, tin and zinc in their respective homeopathic medicines viz. Cuprum met,
Stannum met, and Zincum met were higher (2—30 times that of noble metals) and
easily detectable. In the Cuprum met samples (SBL), we detected ~ 500—2500 pg/ml
of copper in the solutions. Similarly, 6c potency of WSI indicated high
concentration of copper (~370 and ~900 pg/ml respectively in the two samples).
However, the concentrations of copper in the higher poten¬cies viz. 30c and
200c were very low (~ 10—40 pg/ml) in some and below detectable limits in the
others. Likewise for Stannum met samples (SBL) we detected tin; albeit with
very high variations from ~70 to 1000 pg/ml. In the WSI homeopathic solutions
of Stannum met however, lower concentrations of tin were detected in the range
of ~20—180 pg/ml. As compared to the other samples of non-noble metals noted
above, the concentration of zinc in the Zincum met samples was much higher. In
the Zincum met samples we detected presence of zinc with a very high variation
in the concentrations between manufacturers from ~200 to 2700 pg/ml and ~ 1400
to 4000 pg/ml for SBL and WSI respectively.
It was reassuring that there was good
reproducibility in terms of the estimated concentrations of the starting
mate-rials in the pair of samples of the same medicine, potency, and the
manufacturing batch. We observed a variation up to 40% in the samples prepared
from the same manufacturing batch as compared to a variation up to 1550% in
samples from different batches. These results clearly highlighted the
following:
1. Validation
of the accuracy of our method involving pre-concentration of the medicines
prior to analyses as exemplified by the moderate variation in intra-batch
samples (refer data sets for Cuprum met, Stannum met, and Zincum met marked in
bold in Table 2).
2. High
inter-batch variation in the concentration of the starting materials for a
given manufacturer and potency, and between manufacturers.
|
Figure 1 Bright-field TEM images of nanoparticles and
aggregates. Zincum met. (a) 30c (SBL), (b) 200c (SBL), (c) 30c (WSI), (d) 200c (WSI). Aurum met. (e) 30c (SBL), (f) 200c (SBL), (g) 30c (WSI), (h) 200c (WSI). Stannum met. (i) 30c (SBL), (j) 200c (SBL), (k) 30c (WSI), (l) 200c (WSI). Cuprum met.
(m) 30c (SBL), (n) 200c (SBl),
(o) 30c
(WSI), (p) 200c
(WSI).
|
|
Figure
2
Bright-field
and corresponding dark-field TEM images of nanoparticles and aggregates
observed in Zincum met. (a) 30c (SBL), (b) 200c (SBL), (c) 30c (WSI), (d) 200c (WSI). Inset — SAED patterns of the corresponding
nanoparticle/aggregate.
|
|
Table 2 Estimated concentration of starting metals
in various potencies by ICP-AES (pg/ml)
‘Bold’
against a pair of samples in a row for given manufacturer and potency
indicates their preparation from same manufacturing batch. The Limit of
Detection (LOD) of the instrument was 10 ng/ml corresponding to 20 pg/ml
in the original solutions. All concentrations below this value have been
reported as ‘Not Detected’ or ‘ND’.
*
Data indicate that the bottles used to make up the required quantity (2000
ml) were from the same manufacturing batch.
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thus, for each metal-based medicine of a
particular po-tency, the estimated values appeared to be within a band of 2
orders of magnitude. These variations could be attributed to the processes
employed for manufacturing. A visit to a reputed manufacturer revealed that the
initial lactose trit-urations were performed on an automated machine using a
mortar and pestle. Apart from the control of particle sizes of the metal
powders at 1 x potency (wherein 80% of the particles of the starting material
should be below 10 mm and none above 50 mm),17 there are no further checks for
the distribution of the metals in the triturated 6 x mixture, which is the
starting material for proceeding to the liquid based succussion steps. This is
believed to be the cause of these large variations.
The liquid dilutions and the potentization steps
(includ¬ing succussion) were done manually during manufactur¬ing, wherein the
entire mass of the liquid in the glass container was pounded against a rubber
stop 10 times, with inevitable variation in the force of impact and the ex¬tent
of cavitation generated during these human powered succussions. Apart from the
initial trituration with lactose, succussion per se could also be an important
method of generation of nanoparticles of the starting materials, due to intense
shearing of these nanoparticles against the walls of the glass containers, by
the fluid shear and possibly by particle collision due to the implosion of the
cavitations created by the ultra-sound waves generated. Therefore, a difference
in the shearing force imparted during succus¬sion could result in a large
difference in the formation of
the nanoparticle fraction of the starting
materials, thereby reflecting as inter-batch variation.
|
Figure
4 Estimated
concentrations of starting elements in homeopathic potencies. Part
‘A’ —
estimated by Roder et al.18 — solid symbols: expected concentrations, open:
estimated concentrations, circles: Au3+, star: Fe3+,
left triangle: Hg2+, right triangle: Zn2+. Part
‘B’ —
estimated by ICP-AES in our work — squares: zinc concentrations, open: Zincum met (SBL), solid: Zincum met
(WSI), open triangles: gold concentrations in Aurum met (SBL) samples. The dotted line at 20 pg/ml
indicates the LOD of the instrument.
|
Once the succussion process was completed, the entire mass of liquid was allowed to settle, prior to transfer of 1% of this dilution to 99 parts fresh 90%v/v ethanol. How¬ever, the settling time for the dilutions was not fixed. Also, the removal of one part of the previous dilution for the pur¬pose of transferring into a fresh solvent was carried out ran¬domly from the container and was a manual process. All the above-
mentioned factors combined are expected to
im¬part a lot of disparity in the concentrations of the starting materials in
the final medicines which we observed in our studies.
During our analyses we also noted the
plateauing effect of the concentrations of the starting metals per se in a
partic¬ular concentration range in potencies 6c, 30c and 200c, in spite of 30c
and 200c potencies being 1048 and 10388 respec¬tively more dilute than 6c. It
is interesting to note that the plateau for non-noble metals showed a higher
metal content than for noble metals. Our ICP-AES results suggested that the
asymptote effect commences around 6c potency (Figure 4).
Our findings appear to be an extension of the
trends noted at lower potencies by Roder ef al.,18 who analyzed the
concentrations of a few metals in decimal dilutions from 6x to 8x
(corresponding to centesimal potencies of 3c to 4c). Part ‘A’ in Figure 4
explicitly depicts de¬crease in the concentrations of starting materials with
di¬lutions. Only in the case of Au3+ in AuCl3 solutions, the actual
concentrations determined were lesser than the expected concentrations
(circles, solid: expected; open: estimated concentrations). On the contrary,
the concentra¬tions of Fe3+ though slightly lower than expected at the 6x
potency, did not decrease as expected, and were in fact slightly higher at 7 x
and 8 x potencies (stars, solid: expected; open: determined concentrations).
Likewise, the concentrations of Hg2+ and Zn2+ were almost 200% higher than
expected at 8x potency. A scrupulous, concurrent analysis of these results
suggested the com¬mencement of an asymptote formation in the vicinity of the 8x
(i.e. 4c) potency.
When the data from Part ‘A’ of the graph are
compared with our data (Part ‘B’), there appears to be a plateauing effect,
reached at 6c potency.
While a plateau is reached for each metal, the
concentra¬tion range varied from one metal to another and between
manufacturers. The plateau of Zincum met (WSI) (solid squares) was appreciably
higher (between 1300 and 4000 pg/ml) than that for Zincum met (SBL) (open
squares), albeit with the inherent variation mentioned ear¬lier. Similar trends
were also observed for all the other metals that were analyzed.
Possible key mechanisms at large dilutions
Acoustic cavitation, a well studied
phenomenon11 e14 may explain our TEM findings regarding surface asperities and
particle aggregation. Researchers have observed that the vapor bubbles
generated due to the
high-energy sound waves had temperatures
exceeding a few thousand degrees (~ 5000 K) along with intense pressures (~1000
atm). The bubbles so formed had very short lives before imploding, creating
intense shock waves which propel particles in the solution at extremely high
velocities resulting in collisions which induced the following morphological
changes on the particle surfaces:
1. When
the particles collided head-on, localized melting occurred on their surfaces at
the point of contact, with the temperatures being ~3000 K. With the surrounding
liquid at ambient temperature, the melted surfaces instantly cooled at
extremely high rates (>1010 K/s), thereby solidifying the melted area instantaneously
and fusing the particles at the point of contact to form aggregates.
2. The
extremely high rate of cooling, while not allowing for re-crystallization at
the point of contact, led to an amorphous phase on the particle surface as
evident from the diffused rings obtained in the electron diffraction (ED)
patterns.
3. Collision
of particles at a glancing angle led to fragmen-tation of the particle surface
which may have given rise to surface asperities.
The above theories support our observations
regarding the presence of the surface asperities we see in TEM, since the
forceful pounding of the glass containers during the succus-sion process may
have been instrumental in generating the ultra-sound waves, resulting in their
formation.
Another question that arises from our
observations is how in spite of such huge dilutions the particles of the
start¬ing materials are retained even at 200c potency? The an¬swer to this
question could lie in the manufacturing process itself. We perceive that during
the succussion pro¬cess, the pounding of solutions against a rubber stop
gener¬ates numerous nanobubbles19 as a result of entrapment of air and
cavitation due to generation of ultra-sound waves. The particles of the
starting material instantaneously get adsorbed on the surface of these bubbles
and cavitations. This phenomenon could be similar to the mechanism of formation
of Pickering emulsions,20-22 wherein the emulsified phase viz. air bubbles or
liquid droplets are stabilized by a layer of particles.
This nanoparticle—nanobubble complex rises to
the sur-face and can be within a monolayer once the total metal concentrations
are well below 1 ppm (Table S6 — Supplementary information). It is this 1% of
the top layer of the solution which is collected and added to the next vessel,
into 99 parts of fresh solvent and the succussion process is repeated. This
transfer of the top 1% layer in each step will ensure that once we reach below
a certain concentration i.e. well within a monolayer, the entire start¬ing
material continues to go from one dilution to the next, resulting in an
asymptote beyond 6c.
Conclusion
Using state-of-the-art techniques (TEM, SAED,
and ICP-AES) we have demonstrated the presence of nanopar-ticles of the
starting materials and their aggregates even at extremely high dilutions. The
confirmed presence of nano-particles challenges current thinking about the role
of dilution in homeopathic medicines. We have found that the concentrations
reach a plateau at the 6c potency and beyond. Further, we have shown that
despite large differences in the degree of dilution from 6c to 200c (1012 to
10400), there were no major differences in the nature of the particles (shape
and size) of the starting material and their abso¬lute concentrations (in
pg/ml).
How this translates into change in biological
activity with increasing potency needs further study. Concrete evi¬dence of the
presence of particles as found by us could help take the research in homeopathy
a step forward in under¬standing these potentised medicines and also help to
posi¬tively change the perception of the scientific community towards this mode
of treatment.
Conflict of interest
There are neither any financial nor any
personal conflicts of interest with respect to the work carried out for this
article.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Department of Earth Sciences and
the Cryo-TEM central facility at IIT Bombay for ICP-AES and TEM analyses
respectively. We also gratefully acknowledge funding by Shridhar Shukla, S G
Kane and
Industrial Research and Consultancy Center
(IRCC), IIT
Bombay. We also thank P N Varma for valuable
insights.
Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article
can be
found in the online version at
doi:10.1016/j.homp.2010. 05.006.
References
1 Khuda-Bukhsh AR. Laboratory
research in homeopathy: Pro. Integr Cancer Ther 2006; 5: 320—332.
2 Khuda-Bukhsh AR. Towards
understanding molecular mechanisms of action of homeopathic drugs: an overview.
Mol Cell Biochem 2003; 253: 339—345.
3 Davenas E, Beauvais F, Amara J, et
al. Human basophil degranula¬tion triggered by very dilute antiserum against
IgE. Nature 1988; 333: 816—818.
4 Chaplin MF. The memory of water: an
overview. Homeopathy 2007; 96: 143—150.
5 Teixeira J. Can water possibly have
a memory? A skeptical view. Homeopathy 2007; 96: 158—162.
6 Anagnostatos GS. Small water
clusters (clathrates) in the homoeo-pathic preparation process. In: Endler PC,
Schulte J (eds). Ultra High Dilution — Physiology and Physics. Dordrecht, the
Nether-lands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994, p. 121—128.
7 Rao ML, Roy R, Bell IR, Hoover R.
The defining role of structure (including epitaxy) in the plausibility of
homeopathy. Homeopathy 2007; 96: 175—182.
8 Walach H, Jonas WB, Ives J, van
Wijk R, Weingartner O. Research on homeopathy: state of the art. J Altern
Complement Med 2005; 11: 813—829.
9 Davydov AS. Energy and electron
transport in biological systems. In: Ho MW, Popp FA, Warnke U (eds).
Bioelectrodynamics and Biocommunication. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing
Co. Pte. Ltd., 1994. Chap 17, pp 411—430.
10 Anick DJ, Ives JA. The silica
hypothesis for homeopathy: physical chemistry. Homeopathy 2007; 96: 189—195.
11 Doktycz SJ, Suslick KS. Interparticle
collisions driven by ultra-sound. Science 1990; 247: 1067—1069.
12 Suslick KS, Doktycz SJ. The
sonochemistry of Zn powder. J Am Chem Soc 1989; 111: 2342—2344.
13 Suslick KS, Price GJ. Applications of
ultrasound to materials chemistry. Annu Rev Mater Sci 1999; 29: 295—326.
14 Suslick KS. The chemical effects of
ultrasound. Sci Am 1989 (Feb);80—86.
15 Goldstein AN, Echer CM, Alivisatos
AP. Melting in semiconductor nanocrystals. Science 1992; 256: 1425—1427.
16 Edington JW. Philips technical
library — monographs in practical electron microscopy in materials science 2 —
electron diffraction in the electron microscope. Eindhoven: N.V. Philips’,
1975, p 110.
17 Varma PN, Vaid I. Encyclopedia of
homoeopathic pharmacopoeia & drug index. New Delhi: B. Jain Publishers,
2007, pp 2722—2745.
18 Röder E, Putz W, Frisse R. Bestimmung
von Au, Fe, Zn und Hg in homöopathischen Dilutionen durch zerstörungsfreie
Neutronenak¬tivierungsanalyse. Fresenius ZAnal Chem 1981; 307: 120—126.
19 Roy R, Tiller WA, Bell I, Hoover MR.
The structure of liquid water: novel insights from materials research;
potential relevance to home¬opathy. Mater Res Innov 2005; 9: 577—608.
20 Pickering SU. Emulsions. J Chem Soc
1907; 91: 2001—2021.
21 Binks BP. Particles as surfactants —
similarities and differences. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2002; 7: 21—41.
22 Binks BP, Lumsdon SO. Influence of
particle wettability on the type and stability of surfactant-free emulsions. Langmuir
2000; 16: 8622—8631.
Medicina Homeopática y el Método
Científico
Dr. Roberto
López Flores*
Dr. Carlos
Falcón Aguilera**
Dr. Carlos
Hernández Chanona**
M en C. Ma.
De Jesús Granados Salas***
*FES
Iztacala: UNAM.
**
A.N.M.H.C.P. dei D.F. "Dr. Mateo Rubio Septién."
*** ESIME IPN
Dr
Samuel Hahnemann
El
conocimiento científico es un conocimiento probado. Las teorías científicas se
derivan de modo riguroso, de los hechos adquiridos por la experiencia mediante
la observación, la experimentación y la comprobación.
La ciencia
está basada en aquello que podemos ver, oír, tocar; el conocimiento científico
es confiable porque es un conocimiento objetivamente probado.
Todo esto
resume lo que en la era moderna se dice acerca de lo que es el conocimiento
científico, el cual se desarrolló como resultado de la revolución científica
iniciada por Galileo y por Newton y que tuvo lugar en el siglo XVII.
En el
terreno de las ciencias naturales se estructuran las leyes a través del
desarrollo de cada uno de los pasos del método científico. En el presente
ensayo se demuestra cómo en forma implícita, el Dr. Samuel Hahnemann desarrolla
el método científico en el texto del Organón de la Medicina y algunos otros de
sus libros.
El llamado
método científico se define como el conjunto de pasos que deben cumplirse para
llevar a cabo una investigación. Este método, con el tiempo se ha venido enriqueciendo
y en nuestros días, para que una hipótesis sea aprobada y aceptada como cierta,
debe desarrollarse y comprobarse íntegramente. Dicho método consta de las
siguientes etapas:
Planeación. En la que a través de la observación
se tiene contacto con el problema a resolver.
Investigación Documental. La cual es una recopilación de
información existente sobre el tema en libros, revistas científicas, bancos de
información computarizados y otros más que existen actualmente.
Después de
delimitar el problema, que se basa en la observación y en la investigación
documental, se tienen los elementos necesarios y procede a la definición del
problema.
Planteamiento de la hipótesis. Ya conocidos los parámetros
mencionados, se hace una proposición aceptable o refutable por la observación y
experimentación de los hechos, los cuales fa confirmarán o la negarán según el
caso.
Elaboración del diseño experimental; en el que se van a desarrollar una
serie de experiencias lógicas, con el fin de someterlo apruebas que no dejen dudas,
para demostrar la validez de la hipótesis previamente elaborada. Tal diseño
experimental consta de Material y Método, en donde se deben tomar en cuenta las
distintas variables y controles que intervienen en el experimento. En seguida
se pasa a la Obtención de resultados, o sean las conclusiones que se desprenden
de los datos experimentales. De allí se llega al análisis de resultados en el
que se analizan los resultados que se han obtenido de los experimentos, para
conocer la aseveración o la negación de la hipótesis planteada.
Constatación; en este paso simplemente se ve sí los
resultados obtenidos coinciden o no con la hipótesis planteada. Finalmente se
hacen las Conclusiones, que son la afirmación sobre la veracidad de la
hipótesis propuesta.
Actualmente
cualquier investigador que siga estos parámetros en la forma expuesta, estará
cumpliendo con los postulados del método científico para probar cualquier
hipótesis, que después podrá ser aceptada como verdad científica (1, 2,3, 4, 5, 9).
Si nosotros, con espíritu crítico y mentalidad
científica leemos el Organón del Arte
de Curar de Samuel Hahnemann, comprobaremos que no obstante haber sido escrito hace más de 200 años,
cumple rigurosamente con el método científico para comprobar su
hipótesis del axioma Simila Similibus Curantur (8).
De acuerdo
con esta exposición a continuación presentamos el análisis hecho del Organón y
otros libros de Hahnemann para demostrar cómo a lo largo de su exposición
siguen el desarrollo del método científico.
1. Observación. La primera observación de Samuel
Hahnemann fue traduciendo la Materia Médica de Cullen, en donde llamó su
atención las explicaciones que su autor daba acerca de la acción de la corteza
de quina (Cinchona) en el tratamiento de la malaria. Experimentó en sí mismo y
descubrió que sí un individuo sano toma la sustancia, sufre los síntomas que
ocasiona la enfermedad (8). La segunda observación la encontramos en la
Introducción de Organón; Hahnemann habla ampliamente de la afirmación que hizo
a lo largo de muchos años de ejercer la medicina de entonces. Los métodos
terapéuticos de aquella época consistían en purgantes, sangrías y vomitivos
entre otros. Esta forma de terapéutica la consideró antinatural, agresiva y
nada benéfica para el enfermo; por el contrario lo único que hacía era restar
fuerza vital al enfermo, por lo que pensó que era necesario encontrar otra
forma de terapéutica, lógica, que fuera útil para tratar los diferentes
padecimientos.
2. Investigación Documental. En los parágrafos de sus
obras hace varias citas en las que demuestra una vasta y tenaz investigación
tras muchos años de leer las publicaciones, más prestigiadas de la época; en el
Organón del
Arte de Curar, cita más de
290 referencias (8).
3. Todas
estas se refieren a
publicaciones hechas por médicos que habían obtenido la curación de
algunas enfermedades con medicamentos que fueron capaces de producir los
síntomas de esos mismos padecimientos (Hutted's Joumal X11 I, Ratia Mendi Up 126, Medicin RAt
Sistem T IVV P 7, Praxis Med. P 346).
Hahnemann cumplió en esta forma con el
requisito de la investigación documental en forma exhaustiva.
4. Delimitación del problema. En el Organón del arte
de curar o exposición de la doctrina homeopática (6a. Edición, paginas 57 a la
99), Hahnemann refiere varios ejemplos de curaciones homeopáticas en forma
involuntaria, hechas por médicos de la antigua escuela. Con esta serie de
experiencias involuntarias hechas por médicos de entonces, Hahnemann refuerza
sus observaciones acerca del axioma lo semejante se cura con lo semejante.
5. Planteamiento de la hipótesis. La hipótesis que
planteara Hahnemann la encontramos en las páginas del mismo Organón, en donde
se reafirma su idea sobre el Similla Similibus Curantur.
6. Observación y experimentación. Más tarde experimenta
en personas sanas de ambos sexos, de diferentes edades y razas, una serie de
medicamentos estandarizados en cuanto a su procedencia y preparación,
comprobando su utilidad (6,7). Además recoge o recopila los síntomas físicos y
mentales producidos en cada uno de los individuos dé experimentación, lo que le
permitió ordenarlos con el nombre de patogénesis de cuya elaboración surgió la
que llamó Materia Médica Pura; así experimento 90 medicamentos a lo largo de su
vida. Los sujetos en los cuales experimentaba eran voluntarios, a los cuales
sometía al experimento, colocándolos en diferentes grupos y administrándoles
dosis variables de cada medicamento de estudio.
7. Obtención de resultados.
Los resultados de sus experimentos fueron cuidadosamente registrados y
clasificados durante años de experimentación (7,8).
8. Análisis de resultados. Una vez obtenidos los
resultados, relacionó los síntomas que producían los medicamentos en la
personas sanas, con los síntomas que presentaban los pacientes de la
enfermedad, con lo que comprobó la veracidad del axioma símilia similibus
curantur.
9. Constatación de la hipótesis planteada. Los
resultados experimentales que obtuvo al proporcionar diferentes medicamentos a
personas sanas a las cuales les produjeron una serie de síntomas, le
permitieron administrar estos mismos medicamentos a enfermos que presentaban
los mismos síntomas que habían sido producidos en personas sanas.
10. Conclusiones. Finalmente Hahnemann comprobó la veracidad de su
hipótesis al verificar la curación de numerosos enfermos, con esta nueva
modalidad terapéutica.
Desde la
página 100 del Organón; hasta el final del libro, una vez que hubo comprobado
la hipótesis de que los semejante se cura con lo semejante, Hahnemann
desarrolla y da cuerpo a una doctrina que denominó homeopática, sin dejar dudas
sobre la comprobación científica de sus observaciones.
Ahora
nosotros podemos concluir
que hace falta actualizar la obra científica de Samuel Hahnemann, ya que hasta
la fecha nadie se había preocupado por confirmar que la obra de este hombre
cumple ampliamente con lo científico en la forma de verdad, expuesta en
este ensayo y pensamos que con esto no habrá motivo para que cualquier medico que
piense seriamente, tenga dudas sobre el planteamiento del método científico
cuya veracidad siguen comprobando sus seguidores día con día.
Por último,
queremos señalar que es
pertinente llamar la atención de los médicos que practican homeopatía o
que hayan escrito,
traducido o comentado sobre la obra de Hahnemann, ya que en algunos trabajos distorsionan o
hacen incoherente la obra original, sucediendo entonces que estaba
apegado al método científico, por este motivo parezca empirismo puro.
Resumen
De acuerdo
con lo expuesto, el método
científico fue rigurosamente seguido por Samuel Hahnemann para
desarrollar y fundamentar la Doctrina Homeopática, que se llevó muchos años de
trabajo exhaustivo.
• Las partes que integran el método
científico son:
• Observación
• Investigación documental
• Delimitación del problema
• Planeación de la hipótesis
• Elaboración del diseño experimental
• Obtención de resultados
• Constatación de la hipótesis planteada
• Conclusiones
Samuel Hahnemann
cumplió con estos pasos, como lo demuestra a través de sus escritos, en los
tratados documentales de sus libros, Organón de la medicina, la Materia Médica
Pura, las Enfermedades Crónicas y otros.
Se puede concluir que sin duda, el método
terapéutico fue científicamente comprobado por su autor.
Actualmente
investigaciones avanzadas en países de Europa como Francia, Inglaterra,
Alemania e Italia incluyen el tema de la homeopatía, la prueba la tenernos en
la publicación de J.
Benvenistel°, la memoria del agua, que este autor y otros más hacen
publicaciones constantemente en revistas científicas.
Jacques
Benveniste (12 de marzo de 1935 – 3 de octubre de 2004) fue médico, bioquímico
e inmunólogo francés co-descubridor el factor de activación plaquetario
(Patlelet Activation Factor)
Benveniste
publicó 230 artículos científicos
En 1979
publicó un conocido artículo sobre la estructura de un factor de activación de
plaquetas y su relación con la histamina.
En 1988
Benveniste publicó un artículo en la prestigiosa revista científica Nature en
el que exponía una serie de experimentos sobre degranulación de basófilos
disparada por anticuerpos IgE (del grupo de la inmunoglobulina E) muy diluidos.
Estos hallazgos apoyan el fundamento de la Medicina Homeopatica.
Bibliografía
1. Baena Paz, Guillermina Instrumentos de
investigación. Primera Edición, México, Editores Unidos, S. A.
2. Braunstein, Néstor A. Y Pasternac,
Marcelo. Psicología Ideología y Ciencia. Sexta Edición, Siglo XXI Editores, S.
A.(1979)
3. Bunge Mario. La Ciencia, su método y su
filosofía. Argentina, Edición Siglo XX
4. Cervo A. L. Bervian P.A. Metodología
Científica. Traduciendo a la segunda edición de Metodología Científica. Brasil
Editora McGraw-Hill 1979 Colombia. Edición McGraw-Hill ((1982).
5. Tamayo y Tamayo Mario. El proceso de la
investigación científica. Primera edición, segunda reimpresión. Editorial
Limusa S.A. (1983).
6. Samuel Hahnemann. 90 medicamentos
homeopáticos. Miraguano Ediciones. Madrid (1988).
7. Roger
Lamaudie. La vida sobrehumana de Samuel Hahnemann. Fernando Aidape Barrera
Editor (1975).
8. Samuel Hahnemann. Organón de la
medicina. Sexta Edición.
9. Granados Salas Ma. de Jesús.
"Principios fundamentales de la investigación científica". Editorial
Raúl Juárez Garro, 1999.
10. E. Davenas,
F. Beauvais. J. Amara, M. Oberbaum, B. Robinzon, A. Miadonna, A. Tedeschi, B.
Pomeranz, P. Eortner, P. Belon, J. Sainte Laudy, B. Poitevin & J.
Benveniste. Human basophil degranulation triggered by very dilate antiserum against
IgE; Reprinted from Nature, Vol. 333, No. 6167, pp. 816-818, 30th June, 1988 C.
Macmillan Magazines Ltd; 1989.
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
Introduction
Background
Homeopathic medicines are prepared
through a characteristic process known as potentization. Potentization
involves serial dilution and agitation (by means of strong strokes) or
trituration at each stage. Trituration consists in the fine grinding of a
starting-substance with lactose, which is used when the starting-substance is
not soluble in water or alcohol. Potency levels are designated as ‘x’ (or
‘d’) and ‘c’ when they are diluted 1:9 and 1:99 respectively at each stage.
Without agitation (or trituration), a dilution is thought to be devoid of any
therapeutic effect and should not be termed potency. For example, potency
12cH was diluted 1:99 12 times with strong strokes at each dilution level;
‘H’ here stands for Hahnemann’s method. According to Avogadro’s number, there
should be no molecule of the starting-substance in potencies above 12cH. Nevertheless,
much higher centesimal potencies, such as 200, 1,000, 10,000 cH, etc. are
routinely used in homeopathic clinical practice with satisfactory results.
|
|
299
|
|
Original Article
Homeopathy emerging as nanomedicine
Rajendra
Prakash Upadhyay1, Chaturbhuja Nayak2
(1)
Department of Bio-chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Indian Institute of
Technology
(IIT) Delhi, New Delhi, India (2) Central Council for Research in Homeopathy,
New Delhi, India
ABSTRACT
Background: Homeopathy is a time-tested
two-century old empirical system of healing. Homeopathic medicines are
prepared through a characteristic process known as potentization, where
serial dilutions are performed with strong strokes at each step of dilution.
Homeopathy is controversial because most medicines do not contain one single
molecule of the corresponding starting-substance. Aim: To investigate a
possible nanoscience mechanism of action of homeopathic medicines.
Methodology: Ultra-pure samples were prepared and were examined under
scanning (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) along with selected
area nanodiffraction (SAD) and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). Also
trace element analysis (TEA) for silicon was performed. Results: Homeopathic
medicines showed not to be ‘nothing’, but exhibited nanoparticles and
conglomerates of them, which had crystalline nature and were rich in silicon.
Conclusions: During the violent strokes involved in potentization,
information arising from the serially diluted starting-substance might be
encrypted by epitaxy on silicon-rich crystalline nanoparticles present in the
resulting homeopathic medicine. The ‘size’ of the information encrypted on
nanoparticles might vary together with the degree of dilution. As homeopathic
medicines exhibit healing effects, these nanoparticles along with the
interfacial water on their surface might carry this information - which
biological systems are able to identify - to the target. As various forms of
silica are known to interact with proteins and cells of the immune system,
homeopathy might represent a nanomedicine system. Possible confirmation,
however, requires further research in materials and interfacial water.
Keywords: homeopathy; epitaxy;
nanoparticle; interfacial water; nanomedicine.
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
From the perspective of conventional medicine, all homeopathic
medicines are nothing but placebo used to give some psychological relief to
patients. Despite all criticism, the time-tested clinical results of
homeopathy observed also in infants caused widespread popularity among users.
Reilly et al. [1] concluded that since homeopathy
elicits much more than placebo responses it is an empirical puzzle and a
challenge to orthodox scientific models. A strategy for structural
exploration of homeopathic medicines was suggested [2]. With the advent of
new tools supplied by nanoscience and nanotechnology, new research paths were
opened. The aim of this study was to investigate possible
nanoparticles/materials in homeopathic medicines, and if positive, to examine
whether this suffices to qualify homeopathy as a form of nanomedicine.
|
|
Current Status of
Research
The composition and properties of bulk water was the subject of much
study, however very little attention was paid to the suspended solid phases
that make it ultra-diluted aqua sols [3]. As succussion is mandatory in the
preparation of homeopathic potencies, epitaxy was adduced to explain the
transfer of structural information even in the absence of starting-substance
[4].
Epitaxy is a frequently observed phenomenon in materials science and
technology, especially in the fabrication of semiconductors. It refers to the
transfer of structural information without transferring matter, whereupon
crystalline material grows on the surface of another mimicking the structure
of the latter. Therefore, the so-called silica hypothesis might be considered
an important framework for the understanding of the mechanism of action of
homeopathic medicines [5].
A recent study [6] with market samples of some metal-derived
homeopathic medicines found that extreme homeopathic dilutions retain the
starting materials in the form of nanoparticles. The size distribution of
these nanoparticles and their clusters was found to be nearly the same in
different potencies. Nevertheless, the opposite was observed in a different
study [7] on membrane anisotropy, suggesting that the cluster’s size
decreases with the increasing potency. Further, a seeming hurdle in the
explanation of extreme homeopathic dilutions, Avogadro’s constant was doubted
for its validity [8].
There are some interesting observations regarding the preparation of
homeopathic medicines, which might provide clues for their understanding.
Homeopathic potencies (medicines) have always been prepared in glass vials.
Witt et al. [9] suggested that when these vials are
lined up with paraffin, their effects decrease and further, upon addition of
powdered glass to potencies prepared in plastic vials, the lost effects
reappear.
Moreover, recent developments in the understanding of interfacial
water are truly extraordinary [10]. This water has not been as much studied
and understood as bulk water. It is coherent and liquid crystalline in
nature, and it exhibits strange properties. Also the properties of
nanoparticles are rated ‘strange’ compared to their bulk matter. Both are new
fields of studies and much has yet to come out.
Quite recently Montagnier et al [11] reported the presence of
electromagnetic signals produced by DNA sequences in high aqueous dilutions.
This opened up a new area of research also in homeopathy, since homeopathic
medicines may be tested for electromagnetic signals emission and if affirmative,
studies may be designed to establish how the information carried by a
starting-substance is transferred to high-dilutions during the process of
potentization.
|
|
300
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
Material and Methods Sample Preparation
We prepared samples of plant-derived homeopathic medicines Colchicum,
Pulsatilla and Belladonna obtained as mother-tincture from
Schwabe India; we decided to prepare the medicines by ourselves to grant
ultrapurity and to develop controls to compare results. Potencies were
prepared up to 15cH, where the starting- material is unlikely to be any
longer present. Simple dilutions without agitation (strokes) were also
prepared from the respective mother-tinctures up to the 15th
centesimal level to serve as controls. Potencies of ultra- pure Milli-Q water
were also potentiated up to 15cH as another control. All these dilutions were
prepared in borosilicate glass vials (Schott Duran, Germany). Potencies were
also prepared up to 15cH in plastic vials (Tarsons, material: PP
autoclavable) containing no glass whatsoever to observe the alleged
interference of glass in the preparation of samples.
All samples were prepared in clean containers using Milli-Q water
(electrical conductivity 18.2 MQ x cm) and alcohol (99.5%, pharmacopoeia
grade, Merck, Germany) as per established methodologies. Samples were
prepared in 89% alcohol (v/v) by the same person to avoid variations in
strokes. Dilution was performed according to the standard centesimal ratio
1:99 for starting-material and diluent medium respectively by means of
micropipette with disposable plastic tips in sterile conditions under laminar
hood (clean environment). As no trituration was performed at any stage,
lactose crystals were not present in samples.
Scanning Electron
Microscopic (SEM) Studies of Samples
SEM was performed on samples with Zeiss EVO 50 equipment. To prepare
specimens, one drop of sample was air-dried on a glass cover slip and mounted
on a holder. Since these are nonconductive solid specimens, they were coated
with an ultrathin layer of electrically conducting material gold laid on the
sample by sputter coating (EMITECH K550X). Such coating prevented the
accumulation of static electric charge on the specimen during electron
irradiation and also increased the signal, thus improving contrast and
resolution.
Transmission
Electron Microscopic (TEM) Studies of Samples
TEM was performed on samples by means of Technai G20-stwin (200kV)
with EDAX attachment (EDAX Company USA). The carbon-coated grid was dipped in
the sample and let to dry before observation. Selected area nanodiffraction
(SAD) patterns with TEM were also obtained. Also energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX
or EDAX) analysis was performed.
Trace element
analyses for silicon
TEA for silicon was performed in the
15cH samples by means of inductively coupled plasma - optical emission
spectroscopy (ICP-OES) with VARIAN Make - model Vista MPX.
|
|
Results
Study of samples by
SEM
Samples (homeopathic medicines and controls) showed presence of
material even above dilution level 12cH, where the starting-substance is
unlikely to be present according to Avogadro’s number (Figures 1 -4).
However, very low potencies such Pulsatilla 1cH and Pulsatilla 2cH most likely still exhibit starting- substance
material (Figure 5).
|
|
301
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
Figure 1 - Scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of Colchicum 15cH (homeopathic medicine) showing nanomaterials.
|
|
Figure 2 - Scanning electron microscope
(SEM) image of Colchicum 15cH (homeopathic medicine) showing conglomerate. |
|
Figure 3 - Scanning
electron microscopic (SEM) image of Water 14cH (pure water used as starting-
material) showing nanomaterials.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
Figure 4 - Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image
of Colchicum 15cH: a control prepared in plastic vials showing
nanomaterial, however, its appearance differs from samples prepared in glass vials.
|
|
|
|
Figure 5 - Scanning
electron microscope (SEM) images of homeopathic medicines (a) Pulsatilla 1cH and (b)
Pulsatilla 2cH, where the starting-substance is most likely
present. Materials seen are lumps of nanoparticles as they formed in the area
imaged. One drop of sample was dried on a glass cover slip under clean
laminar airflow and nanomaterial was looked for in that drop in a nanoscale
vast area. Wherever such materials with some interesting form were found, the
corresponding extremely small area was imaged.
|
|
|
|
303
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
Study of samples by
TEM
Nanoparticles/materials were observed in
homeopathic medicines (Figures 6-7) as well as in controls (Figure 8).
However, during experiments nanoparticles/material were comparatively more
easily found in homeopathic medicines because they exhibited better presence.
Leaching also occurred in simple dilutions without agitation but in lower
amounts. Figure 8 might be a nanochunk peeled off the glass vial with
nanoparticles.
|
|
|
|
Figure 6 - Transmission electron
microscope (TEM) image of homeopathic medicine Pulsatilla 15cH showing nanoparticles. |
|
Figure 7 - Transmission electron
microscope (TEM) image of homeopathic medicine Pulsatilla 15cH showing nanoparticles with conglomerate. |
|
|
|
304
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
|
|
Figure 8 - Transmission electron
microscope (TEM) image of Pulsatilla 15th centesimal dilution (without agitation) showing nanoparticles with conglomerate or a nanochunk. |
|
SAD by TEM instrument
indicated the crystalline nature of the nanomaterial present in homeopathic
medicines (potencies). Similarly, also nanomaterials present in controls
(dilutions without succussion and plastic vessel potencies) had crystalline
nature. (Figure
9)
|
|
|
|
Figure 9 - Selected area nanodiffraction (SAD) patterns for (a) Pulsatilla 15cH (homeopathic medicine), (b) Pulsatilla 15th centesimal dilution without
agitation (control), and (c) Pulsatilla 15cH prepared in plastic vials (control):
all show the crystalline nature of the present material.
|
|
305
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
EDX showed high silicon contents in the
nanoparticles present in homeopathic medicines (potencies) prepared in glass
(Figure 10). Such high silicon content was not observed in nanoparticles
present in controls.
|
|
|
|
Figure 10 - Energy-dispersive X- ray (EDX) analysis of the selected
area using carbon coated copper grid for homeopathic medicine Colchicum 15cH showing high silicon
content.
|
|
Trace element
analysis (TEA) for silicon
Samples prepared in glass vials where agitation
(strong strokes) was performed (namely, homeopathic medicines and potency of
water) had high and nearly the same silicon content. Dilutions without
agitation, which are not homeopathic medicines, had one-third silicon content
compared to samples prepared in glass vials where agitation was performed.
Dilutions with agitation (i.e. potencies) in plastic exhibited the lowest
silicon content. Therefore, TEA for silicon confirms the high presence of
silicon in homeopathic medicines (potencies) compared to controls. It is
obvious that silicon leaches from the glass wall of vials, especially during
the strokes of potentization irrespective of the starting-substance. (See
Table 1)
|
|
306
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
Table 1 - Trace element analysis (TEA) of samples for silicon by
inductively coupled plasma- optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES)
|
|
S.No.
|
Name of sample
|
Samples detail
|
Silicon content
(ppm)
|
|
1
|
Pulsatilla 15cH Colchicum 15cH Belladonna 15cH
|
Potencies, i.e.
medicines
|
2.4
2.3
2.4
|
|
2
|
Pulsatilla 15th cent. dil. Colchicum 15th cent. dil. Belladonna 15th
cent. dil.
|
Dilutions without agitation, i.e. controls
|
0.8
0.9
0.7
|
|
3
|
Water 15cH
|
Potency of water, i.e. control
|
2.3
|
|
4
|
Pulsatilla 15cH Colchicum 15cH Belladonna 15cH
|
Potencies prepared in plastic vials, i.e. controls
|
0.4
0.3
0.3
|
|
Discussion: Do homeopathic medicines qualify as
nanomedicines?
The dose of homeopathic medicine a
patient takes may contain few (or zero) molecules/atoms of the starting-
substance, but this fact alone does not make homeopathic medicines a variety
of nanomedicines [12]. Toumey
[12] compared homeopathic to nanomedicines,
and quoting the example of nanomedicine Aurimune®, argued that nanomedicines
differ from homeopathic medicines. The major difference is the use of a known
amount of medicine in case of nanomedicines compared to homeopathic
medicines. In addition, gold nanoparticles in nanomedicine Aurimune® act as
the carriers of the active agent to the target.
In the case of homeopathic medicines, crystalline silica (or silicon)
nanoparticles (along with other trace elements leaching from the glass wall
of the vial) with interfacial water on their surface may acquire the
structural information of the starting-substance during the process of
potentization. In medium and high potencies, which are commonly used in
clinical practice, the presence of starting-source is likely to be zero but
it is ‘immaterial’. It may be argued that what matters here is the ‘size’ of
the possible encrypted information, perhaps with the electromagnetic
signature of the starting-substance. Such ‘size’ might derive from the
dilution level of the homeopathic medicine, since homeopathic medicines in
different potencies exhibit different effects and properties. Furthermore,
silica (or silicon) nanoparticles might also act as carriers of information.
Such nanocarriers might convey the information of the starting-substance -
which biological systems are able to identify - to the target, which the
starting-substance molecules in themselves are not able to reach. The target,
however, is unlikely to be local because homeopathy is rated a holistic
therapy assumed to work by means of the immune system. It is worth to remark
that various forms of silica are known to interact with proteins and cells of
the immune system [13].
As homeopathic medicines might have both
the ‘size’ of the information of the diluted away starting-substance and the
carriers needed to convey this information - which biological systems are
able to identify - to the target, they may qualify as nanomedicines.
Consequently, the nature, composition and surface features of the crystalline
material (along with interfacial water) present in homeopathic medicines
compared to controls have paramount importance. These must be further
investigated, while keeping an eye also on possible electromagnetic emission.
This investigation requires suitable developments in the fields of materials
and interfacial water.
|
|
307
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
Conclusions
Three homeopathic medicines very frequently used in clinical practice
were found not to be ‘nothing’, but exhibited high nanoparticle contents.
Such nanoparticles were rich in silicon and had crystalline nature. During
the strong strokes of potentization, the nanoparticles might acquire the
information of the diluted away starting-source encrypted on them by means of
epitaxy. As various forms of silica are known to interact with proteins and
cells of the immune system, these nanoparticles (along with the interfacial
water on their surface) might also act as carriers of this information to the
target. The ‘size’ of information might be related with the dilution degree
of medicines. Under such possible conditions, homeopathy qualifies as a
nanomedicine system not requiring high technology. For confirmation and
further elaboration purposes, new research in materials and interfacial water
are required.
|
|
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out under the supervision of Prof. Prashant
Mishra, Department of Biochemical Engineering & Biotechnology, Indian
Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi. Thanks are also given to Dr. Ch.
Raveendar and Dr. K. R. Janardanan Nair of Central Council for Research in
Homeopathy, New Delhi for administrative help. Part of this work was
financially supported by the Central Council for Research in Homeopathy, New
Delhi, India under the collaborative program.
|
|
References
[1] Reilly DT, Taylor MA, Mc Sharry C,
Aitchinson T. Is homeopathy a placebo response? Controlled trial of
homeopathic potency with pollen in hayfever as a model. Lancet.1986;
18: 881-886.
[2] Upadhyay RP. A strategy for structural
exploration of homeopathic medicine. Frontier
Perspectives. 2003; 12(2): 7-8.
[3] Rao ML, Roy R, Bell I. Characterization
of the structure of ultra dilute sols with remarkable biological properties. Mater
Lett. 2008; 62: 1487-1490.
[4] Roy R, Tiller WA, Bell I, Hoover MR. The
structure of liquid water; novel insights from materials research; potential
relevance to homeopathy. Mater Res Innovations. 2005; 9(4): 577-608.
[5] Anick DJ, Ives JA. The silica hypothesis
for homeopathy: physical chemistry. Homeopathy.
2007; 96: 189195.
[6] Chikramane PS, Suresh AK, Bellare JR,
Kane SG. Extreme homeopathic dilutions retain starting materials: A
nanoparticulate perspective. Homeopathy. 2010; 99: 231-242.
[7] Nandy P, Bhandary S, Das S, Basu R,
Bhattacharya S. Nanoparticles and membrane anisotropy. Homeopathy.
2011; 100: 194-197.
[8]
Chirumbolo S. Molecules and nanoparticles in extreme homeopathic
dilutions: is Avogadro’s Constant a dogma? Homeopathy.
2011; 100: 107-108.
|
|
308
|
|
Int J High Dilution Res 2011;
10(37): 299-310
|
|
[9] Witt CM, Ludtke R,
Weisshuhn TE, Quint P, Willich SN. The role of trace elements in homeopathic
preparations and the influence of container material, storage duration, and
potentization. Forsch Komplementarmed.
2006; 13(1): 15- 21.
[10] Zheng J-M, Chin
W-C, Khijniak E, Khijniak E Jr, Pollack GH. Surfaces and Interfacial Water:
Evidence that hydrophilic surfaces have long-range impact. Adv Colloid Interface Sci. 2006; 127: 19-27.
[11] Montagnier L,
Aissa J, Ferris S, Montagnier JL, Lavallee C. Electromagnetic signals are
produced by aqueous nanostructures derived from bacterial DNA sequences. Interdiscip Sci Comput Life Sci. 2009; 1: 8190.
[12] Toumey C. Small
differences. Nat Nanotechnol. 2009; 4:
275.
[13] Xynos ID, Edgar
AJ, Buttery LDK, Hench LL, Polak JM. Ionic products of bioactive glass
dissolution increase proliferation of human osteoblasts and induce
insulin-like growth factor II mRNA expression and protein synthesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2000; 276: 461-465.
|
No hay comentarios.:
Publicar un comentario